Creatine, Explained

Creatine gets talked about a lot, especially in fitness circles, but there is still plenty of confusion about what it actually is, what it does, and who it may be useful for.

This page summarizes published scientific research about creatine monohydrate. Audrey's Chia Cookies contain 1.5 g of creatine monohydrate per serving (6 g per bag). References are provided throughout so readers can explore the original research.

Creatine is not a steroid or a stimulant.[1,2] It is a naturally occurring compound that the human body makes and uses as part of its energy system.[1,3]

It is best known for its extensively studied role in muscle energy and high-intensity exercise performance.[1,4] More recently, researchers have also become increasingly interested in creatine’s role in the brain and other tissues.[1,5]

So, what does the research actually say?

What Is Creatine?

Creatine is a naturally occurring compound synthesized in the body from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine.[1,3]

The body produces creatine on its own, and creatine can also be obtained through food.[1,3] Meat and fish are the primary dietary sources of creatine, while plant foods contain little or no creatine.[1,3]

Most of the creatine in the human body is stored in skeletal muscle, with smaller amounts present in tissues including the brain.[1,3]

Inside cells, creatine exists as both free creatine and phosphocreatine.[3,4] These compounds participate in a system that helps cells rapidly regenerate ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, which is used as an immediate source of cellular energy.[3,4]

Several forms of creatine are available, but creatine monohydrate is the most extensively researched form.[1,2,4] Current evidence has not established other commercially available forms of creatine as consistently superior to creatine monohydrate.[1,2]

Audrey’s Chia Cookies contain creatine monohydrate.

Creatine, Muscles & Energy

To understand what creatine does in muscle, it helps to understand a little bit about ATP.

ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is an energy-carrying molecule used by cells throughout the body.[3,4] Muscle contraction requires ATP.[3,4]

Muscles can store only a limited amount of immediately available ATP.[3,4] During intense muscular activity, ATP is used rapidly and must continually be regenerated.[3,4]

This is where phosphocreatine comes in.

Phosphocreatine can donate a phosphate group to ADP, allowing ATP to be rapidly regenerated.[3,4]

In very simplified form:

ATP → energy is used → ADP → phosphocreatine helps regenerate ATP [3,4]

This energy system is especially important during short-duration, high-intensity muscular activity.[1,4]

Creatine supplementation can increase the amount of creatine and phosphocreatine stored in skeletal muscle.[4,6] Increasing these stores increases the availability of phosphocreatine for rapid ATP regeneration during high-intensity activity.[4,6]

Research has consistently found benefits of creatine supplementation for repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise.[1,4]

Creatine supplementation can also improve strength and power, particularly when combined with training.[1,4]

When combined with resistance training, creatine supplementation can contribute to greater increases in strength and lean body mass than resistance training alone.[4]

In other words:

The relationship between creatine, muscle energy, strength, and high-intensity exercise is one of the most established areas of creatine research.[1,4]

Creatine & the Brain: A Newer Area of Research

Muscles are not the only tissues that use creatine.

Creatine, phosphocreatine, and the creatine kinase energy system are also present in the brain.[1,3,5]

Because the brain has substantial energy requirements, researchers have investigated whether creatine availability can affect brain energetics and cognitive function.[1,5]

This area of research is newer and less conclusive than the research surrounding creatine and skeletal muscle performance.[1,5]

Some studies and reviews suggest that creatine supplementation may improve certain measures of cognitive performance.[1,5]

Memory is one area in which some studies and systematic reviews have found potential benefits.[5,10]

Research has also found possible cognitive effects in situations where brain energy demand is increased, including periods of sleep deprivation.[5,11]

Researchers have investigated whether factors such as age, diet, baseline creatine stores, and the specific cognitive task being tested may influence the response to creatine.[1,5]

Vegetarians and vegans generally obtain substantially less creatine from food than people who consume meat and fish.[1] Some research suggests that people consuming vegetarian diets may respond differently to creatine supplementation, although results are not uniform across all outcomes.[1,5]

Creatine has also been studied in older adults and in several clinical populations.[1,3]

So, what do we actually know?

There is meaningful scientific evidence that creatine plays a role in brain energy metabolism.[1,3,5]

There is also growing evidence suggesting that supplemental creatine may influence certain aspects of cognitive performance.[1,5,10]

However, these cognitive effects are not yet as consistently established as creatine’s effects on muscle energy and high-intensity exercise performance.[1,5]

Research in this area is continuing.[1,5]

Why Does Daily Creatine Intake Matter?

Creatine does not act like an acute stimulant such as caffeine.[2,4]

Instead, regular creatine intake progressively increases creatine stores within skeletal muscle.[4,6]

A traditional “loading” protocol can increase those stores relatively quickly.[4,6] A smaller daily amount can also increase muscle creatine stores without a loading phase, but saturation occurs more gradually.[4,6]

Once creatine stores are elevated, continued creatine intake helps maintain those elevated levels.[4,6]

Because of this, regular intake is generally more important than taking creatine at a particular minute of the day.[2]

Current evidence does not establish that creatine must be consumed immediately before exercise in order to be effective.[2]

Muscle creatine stores also decline gradually after supplementation is stopped rather than disappearing after a single missed dose.[4,6]

So, creatine is generally better thought of as something that works through consistent intake over time rather than something that produces an immediate effect after each serving.[2,4]

How Much Creatine Is Typically Used?

A commonly studied maintenance intake of creatine monohydrate is approximately 3–5 grams per day.[1,2,4]

A frequently studied loading protocol consists of approximately 20 grams per day, usually divided into several smaller servings, for about 5–7 days.[2,4,6]

Loading is optional.[2,4]

Consuming a smaller amount consistently can also increase muscle creatine stores, although it takes longer to achieve similar saturation.[4,6]

Individual responses to creatine can vary based on factors including baseline muscle creatine concentration, diet, body size, and other individual characteristics.[1,4]

How much is in Audrey’s Chia Cookies?

Audrey’s Chia Cookies contain 1.5 grams of creatine monohydrate per serving.

There are 4 servings per bag, for a total of 6 grams of creatine monohydrate per bag.

For comparison, the commonly studied maintenance range described above is approximately 3–5 grams per day.[1,2,4]

Absorption, Digestion & Tolerance

After oral consumption, creatine is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream.[3,4]

Creatine circulating in the blood can then be transported into tissues, including skeletal muscle.[3,4]

Creatine enters muscle cells through specialized creatine transporters.[3]

Once inside muscle, creatine is present as both free creatine and phosphocreatine.[3,4]

Creatine monohydrate is generally well tolerated in healthy adults at commonly studied doses.[1,2,4]

Some gastrointestinal discomfort can occur, particularly when relatively large amounts of creatine are consumed at one time.[2]

Larger single doses may be more likely to cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea than smaller divided doses.[2]

Dividing a large daily intake into smaller amounts is therefore one strategy that may improve gastrointestinal tolerance.[2]

Creatine With Carbohydrates

Creatine does not have to be consumed with carbohydrates in order to increase muscle creatine stores.[4,6]

However, researchers have investigated whether consuming creatine with carbohydrate affects creatine retention.[7]

Human studies have found that consuming creatine with a substantial amount of carbohydrate can increase muscle creatine accumulation compared with consuming creatine alone.[7]

The effect observed in these studies appears to be associated with the insulin response produced after carbohydrate consumption.[7]

Research has also found increased creatine retention when creatine is consumed with a combination of carbohydrate and protein.[8]

Importantly, this does not mean that carbohydrates are required for creatine to work.[4,7]

It also does not mean that the carbohydrate content of Audrey’s Chia Cookies has been demonstrated to increase creatine absorption or retention.

The research simply shows that creatine can be consumed with food and that certain carbohydrate or carbohydrate-and-protein feedings have increased creatine retention under experimental conditions.[7,8]

Why Chia?

Chia seeds have always been part of Audrey’s Chia Cookies.

Chia seeds provide dietary fiber, fat, protein, and a variety of minerals.[9]

Chia seeds are also a plant source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid.[9]

ALA is an essential fatty acid, meaning that humans must obtain it through the diet.[9]

Chia seeds also contain minerals including calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.[9]

There is currently no established evidence that chia makes creatine work better.

They are simply two ingredients with different characteristics that happen to share a cookie.

Creatine does the creatine job.

Chia does the chia job.

The cookie does the cookie job.

Common Questions About Creatine

Is creatine a steroid?

No.[2]

Creatine and anabolic steroids are different substances with different structures and physiological mechanisms.[2]

Creatine is a naturally occurring compound involved in cellular energy metabolism.[1,2,3]

Anabolic-androgenic steroids are substances related to testosterone and act through different biological mechanisms.[2]

Creatine does not function as an anabolic steroid.[2]

Is creatine a stimulant?

No.[2,3]

Creatine’s established effects relate primarily to creatine and phosphocreatine availability and cellular energy metabolism.[2,3]

It does not act through the same stimulant mechanisms as caffeine.[2]

Is creatine only for bodybuilders?

No.[1,2]

Creatine research includes competitive athletes, recreational exercisers, older adults, women, vegetarians and vegans, and several clinical populations.[1,3,4]

Its most established performance benefits involve strength and activities requiring repeated high-intensity effort.[1,4]

Does creatine automatically build muscle?

No.[2]

Creatine supplementation can enhance adaptations to resistance training and can contribute to greater increases in lean mass when combined with training.[2,4]

Creatine does not eliminate the need for the training stimulus involved in developing muscle.[2]

Does creatine cause weight gain?

Creatine supplementation can cause an increase in body mass in some people.[2,4]

An initial increase in body weight is often related in part to changes in body water associated with increased muscle creatine storage.[2]

An increase in body water is not the same thing as an increase in body fat.[2]

Longer-term increases in lean mass may also occur when creatine supplementation is combined with resistance training.[4]

Is the “water weight” from creatine bad?

Creatine supplementation can increase water associated with muscle tissue.[2]

Available evidence does not support the claim that this normal change in body water is inherently harmful in healthy people.[2]

It also should not automatically be interpreted as fat gain.[2]

Does creatine damage the kidneys?

Research in healthy individuals has not demonstrated that recommended creatine supplementation causes kidney damage.[2,4]

Creatine supplementation can, however, influence blood levels of creatinine.[2]

Creatinine is one of the measurements commonly used when evaluating kidney function.[2]

Because creatinine is related to creatine metabolism, changes in serum creatinine do not necessarily indicate that kidney damage has occurred.[2]

People with existing kidney disease, impaired kidney function, or relevant medical concerns should discuss creatine use with a qualified healthcare professional.[2]

Does creatine cause dehydration?

Available research does not support the claim that creatine supplementation generally causes dehydration in healthy individuals.[2]

Studies examining creatine use during exercise and heat exposure have not demonstrated an increased incidence of dehydration attributable to creatine.[2]

Adequate hydration is still important whether or not someone consumes creatine.[2]

Does creatine cause muscle cramps?

Available controlled research does not support the idea that creatine supplementation generally increases muscle cramping.[2]

Some studies have reported similar or lower rates of cramping among people consuming creatine compared with people who were not.[2]

Does creatine cause hair loss?

Current evidence does not establish that creatine supplementation causes hair loss.[2,12]

Much of the concern originated from a small study that reported changes in dihydrotestosterone, or DHT, following creatine supplementation.[2,12]

That study did not measure hair loss.[2,12]

DHT is associated with androgenetic hair loss in susceptible individuals, but that does not establish that creatine causes hair loss.[2,12]

The available evidence has not demonstrated a causal relationship between creatine supplementation and baldness.[2,12]

Do I need to load creatine?

No.[2,4,6]

Loading is one way to increase muscle creatine stores more quickly.[4,6]

A smaller amount taken consistently over a longer period can also increase muscle creatine stores.[4,6]

Do I need to cycle creatine?

There is no established requirement for healthy adults to routinely cycle on and off creatine at commonly studied maintenance intakes.[2,4]

Creatine has been studied during continuous periods of use.[2,4]

Does creatine have to be taken before exercise?

No particular pre-workout timing requirement has been established for creatine.[2]

Because creatine works primarily by increasing tissue creatine stores over time, consistent intake appears to be more important than consuming it during a narrow pre-workout window.[2,4]

What about women?

Creatine has been studied specifically in women across different ages and life stages.[1,13]

Women may have differences in creatine metabolism, dietary intake, and tissue creatine concentrations compared with men.[1,13]

Researchers are studying creatine in women in relation to exercise performance, muscle, aging, pregnancy, menopause, mood, and brain function.[1,13]

Research specifically involving women remains smaller than the overall body of creatine research, and additional female-specific studies are needed.[1,13]

What about vegetarians and vegans?

Meat and fish are major dietary sources of creatine.[1,3]

Because vegetarian and vegan diets contain little or no dietary creatine, people following these diets generally consume less creatine than omnivores.[1]

Some studies have found lower baseline muscle creatine concentrations in vegetarians than in people who eat meat.[1,14]

People with lower baseline creatine stores may experience larger increases in tissue creatine following supplementation.[1,4,14]

What about older adults?

Creatine has been studied extensively in older adults, particularly in combination with resistance training.[1,3]

Research suggests that creatine combined with resistance training may improve certain measures of muscle mass and strength in older adults more than resistance training alone.[3,15]

Researchers are also continuing to investigate creatine and cognitive function in older populations.[1,5]

Is creatine safe?

Creatine monohydrate is one of the most extensively studied nutritional ergogenic aids.[1,2,4]

Available evidence generally supports the safety and tolerability of creatine monohydrate in healthy adults when consumed in commonly studied amounts.[1,2,4]

That does not mean creatine is necessarily appropriate for every individual.[2]

People with medical conditions, people taking medications that may affect kidney function, pregnant or breastfeeding individuals, or anyone with specific health concerns should seek individualized guidance from a qualified healthcare professional.[2]

Why Creatine?

Creatine is one of the most extensively researched ingredients used in sports nutrition. We chose to include creatine monohydrate, the form used in most scientific research. Audrey's Chia Cookies contain 1.5 g of creatine monohydrate per serving (6 g per bag). The rest of this page summarizes published research about creatine itself.

References

[1] Gutiérrez-Hellín J, Del Coso J, Franco-Andrés A, et al. Creatine Supplementation Beyond Athletics: Benefits of Different Types of Creatine for Women, Vegans, and Clinical Populations—A Narrative Review. Nutrients. 2025;17(1):95. doi:10.3390/nu17010095.

[2] Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. Common Questions and Misconceptions About Creatine Supplementation: What Does the Scientific Evidence Really Show? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2021;18:13.

[3] Kreider RB, Stout JR. Creatine in Health and Disease. Nutrients. 2021;13(2):447.

[4] Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Safety and Efficacy of Creatine Supplementation in Exercise, Sport, and Medicine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:18.

[5] Forbes SC, Cordingley DM, Cornish SM, et al. Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Brain Function and Health. Nutrients. 2022;14(5):921.

[6] Hultman E, Söderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, Greenhaff PL. Muscle Creatine Loading in Men. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1996;81(1):232–237.

[7] Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate Ingestion Augments Skeletal Muscle Creatine Accumulation During Creatine Supplementation in Humans. American Journal of Physiology. 1996;271:E821–E826.

[8] Steenge GR, Simpson EJ, Greenhaff PL. Protein- and Carbohydrate-Induced Augmentation of Whole Body Creatine Retention in Humans. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2000;89(3):1165–1171.

[9] Khalid W, Arshad MS, Aziz A, Rahim MA, Qaisrani TB, Afzal F, Ali A, Ranjha MMAN, Khalid MZ, Anjum FM. Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.): A therapeutic weapon in metabolic disorders. Food Sci Nutr. 2022 Dec 15;11(1):3-16. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.3035.

[10] Prokopidis K, Giannos P, Triantafyllidis KK, Kechagias KS, Forbes SC, Candow DG. Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev. 2023 Mar 10;81(4):416-427. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuac064.

[11] Gordji-Nejad A, Matusch A, Hengstler L, Beer S, Kroll T, Klein S, Elmenhorst D, Bauer A, Drzezga A. Single-Dose Creatine Reduces Sleep Deprivation-Induced Deterioration in Cognitive Performance. Nutrients. 2026 Apr 10;18(8):1192. doi: 10.3390/nu18081192.

[12] Lak M, Forbes SC, Ashtary-Larky D, Dadkhahfar S, Robati RM, Nezakati F, Khajevandi M, Naseri S, Gerafiani A, Haghighat N, Antonio J, Tinsley GM. Does creatine cause hair loss? A 12-week randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2025 Sep;22(sup1):2495229. doi: 10.1080/15502783.2025.2495229.

[13] Smith-Ryan AE, Cabre HE, Eckerson JM, Candow DG. Creatine Supplementation in Women’s Health: A Lifespan Perspective. Nutrients. 2021;13(3):877.

[14] Burke, D., Chilibeck, P., Parise, G., Candow, D., Mahoney, D., & Tarnopolsky, M. Effect of Creatine and Weight Training on Muscle Creatine and Performance in Vegetarians. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2003;35(11).

[15] Sharifian G, Aseminia P, Heidary D, Esformes JI. Impact of creatine supplementation and exercise training in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2025 Oct 8;22(1):17. doi: 10.1186/s11556-025-00384-9.